Resources: Main Page | Research Methods (A) | Major Theories (B) | Issues and Contemporary Topics (C) | Professional Education (D)

Aisle B (Major Theories): Classical Theories (BA) | Org. Behavior – Individual (BB1) | Org. Behavior – Groups & Teams (BB2) | Org. Behavior – Systems & Culture (BB3) | Contingency Theories (BC) | Org. Design (BD) | Org. Development & Change (BG) | Human Relations Theories (BH) | Institution Theories (BI) | Leadership Theories (BL) | Modern Management Perspectives (BM) | Postmodern & Critical Theories (BQ) | Sociological Perspectives (BS)

Rack BH (Human Dimension): Human Relations School | Org. Culture | Org. Climate | Org. Identity | Gender and Feminism

Jump to: Importance | Foundational Works | Research Areas | Curated List of Articles | TAOP Resources | References

Gender has been a significant topic in organization studies for a long time. We featured the groundbreaking work of Rosabeth Moss Kanter on “tokenism” from 1977 (Episode 17) and covered the third wave of feminism in a review of Joan Acker’s theory of gendering in organizations (Episode 99), but these are only a few of the significant works done in regarding feminist perspectives in organization studies. This page provides a brief overview of the topic and some curated resources for consideration.

Overview of Gender and Feminism in Organization Studies

A simple way to appreciate the roles that scholars of gender and feminism have played in organization studies is to connect them with the various waves of feminist thought since the late 19th century.

First Wave (Late 19th – Early 20th Century). In addition to contributing to discourse on voting and other basic rights, the first wave of feminism laid the groundwork for examining women’s participation in the workplace. While not directly engaging with organizational theory, its emphasis on legal rights and equal access influenced early research on women’s employment barriers and workplace discrimination. The push for suffrage and basic worker rights prompted initial examinations of how organizations systematically excluded women from certain roles and positions.

Classic works of organization studies (for example, the Hawthorne Studies) assumed traditional gender roles as part of the natural work environment and did not subject those roles to scrutiny. Moreover, because men and women generally performed different tasks and gender integration was very limited, studies including both men and women participants were more likely to be conducted in multiple sites such as an all-male department and an all-female department (see Episode 119 for an example).

Second Wave (1960s-1980s). The second wave of feminism represented the first to challenge traditional gender roles and seek to understand the ways that women were systematically disadvantaged in the workplace. Key works included thos of Alice Cook (1975) who studied working mothers in nine different countries, Rosabeth Moss Kanter’s famous study (1977) on tokenism that we covered (Episode 17), and Claudia Epstein’s 1970 book Woman’s place that described how professional women across numerous vocations were systematically marginalized. Joan Acker (better known in the third wave, discussed below) began her writings in the 1970s on institutional stratification. Other emerging topics of research included challenging the perceived neutrality of bureaucracies (Ferguson, 1979) and exposing the problems of sexual harassment in the workplace (Farley, 1978).

However, the standing presumption remained that organizations were basically gender neutral. In other words, the problems were caused more by nefarious decisions by individuals. This view, however, was diminishing.

Third Wave (1990s-2000s). Enter the third wave, where scholars began viewing organizations as inherently gendered. The aforementioned Joan Acker was already forming this view, but her more famous works on the matter were published in the 1990s (see Episode 99). In addition, the third wave introduced intersectional analysis examining how gender interacts with race, class, and other identities in organizational contexts to doubly-marginalize certain individuals, and also introduced more fluid and non-binary conceptions of gender in organizational studies.

The key theme separating the second and third waves was the move away from altering the workplace and accommodating more gender diversity toward demanding reform.

Fourth Wave (2010s-Present). The fourth wave (caveat below) of feminism continues to influence organizational studies to this day, with heavier focus on how digitization has enabled workplace activism for feminist causes but also the presence of new forms of harassment and discrimination. Research has explored how technology has furthered gendering of the workplace rather than help eliminate it, illuminated the experiences of non-binary and transgender persons, and emphasized intersectional approaches to leadership.

Now, the caveat — not all scholars agree that there is a fourth wave (Nicholson, 2010). Some see the “fourth wave” as just an extension of the third, just with new technologies. Others have come to believe the “wave” metaphor as itself problematic because it obscures the complexity of the issues raised behind structured time divisions that may not be meaningful. Regardless, the evolution of scholarship to allow for more nuanced or complex realities, present more comprehensive and sophisticated theories, and broadening to more globally diverse settings than just the west alone.

Some Foundational Works on Gender and Feminism in Organization Studies

The above provides a sense of history connecting gender and feminist thought in organizational contexts over time, but other works would be considered foundational for the scholarship of gender and feminism.

Kessler & McKenna, Gender: An Ethnomethodological Approach. This 1978 book critically interrogates the relationship between sex and gender, challenging the biological determinism that underpinned much of the earlier scholarship and arguing that gender is a social construct. This has had profound implications for understanding organizational dynamics and the roles individuals play within them (Gerson, 2005). The authors’ ethnomethodological perspective emphasizes how everyday interactions contribute to the maintenance of gender norms.

Calás & Smircich, From the ‘Woman’s Point of View‘. This is a book chapter from 1999 that appeared in the book Studying organization: Theory & method edited by Clegg & Hardy. The authors critique traditional organizational theories that often overlook women’s experiences and perspectives, and thus advocate for a feminist approach to organization studies that incorporates women’s voices.

Hearn & Parkin, Gender and Organizations: A Selective Review and a Critique of a Neglected Area. This is a 1983 article that provided a comprehensive overview of the literature on gender in organizations up to that point. They highlighted the marginalization of gender issues within organization studies and call for a more integrated approach that considers the implications of gender for organizational theory and practice. Their critique has spurred further research and discussion about the importance of gender as a category of analysis in organizational contexts.

Acker, Hierarchies, jobs, bodies: A theory of gendered organizations. Joan Acker’s (1990) concept of “gendered organizations” has been foundational in understanding how organizational structures and practices perpetuate gender inequalities. Her work emphasizes the need to analyze organizations through a gender lens, revealing how gender is embedded in organizational processes and cultures.

Contemporary Areas of Research

Contemporary research into gender and feminism within organization studies encompasses a diverse array of themes, reflecting the multifaceted nature of gender dynamics in the workplace. Naturally, research in areas mentioned above have been furthered (ostensibly under the “fourth wave”), such as studies that look at how newer organizational forms such as worker cooperatives, are reproducing gender disparities even in collectivist settings (Sobering et al., 2014; Sobering, 2016).

Intersection of feminism with political ideologies. Feminist movements can come in different forms. One study illustrates how women within far-right movements navigate and reshape feminist discourses to align with their political agendas, thereby complicating traditional feminist narratives (Kamenou, 2023). Such intersectionality in different political contexts can influence women’s agency and the broader feminist movement, suggesting that feminism is not a monolithic entity but rather a contested space shaped by various socio-political factors.

Postfeminism. The perceived declines in feminist thought or support for feminist causes in some contexts is being studied as postfeminism. One study discusses how postfeminist sensibilities emphasize individualism and personal choice, often at the expense of structural analyses of inequality (Gill et al., 2016). Another study examines the emergence of stigma associated with feminist identities in various industries, such as the video game sector where feminist ideas are often marginalized or co-opted (Kivijärvi & Sintonen, 2021).

Transnational and global feminisms. Researchers are showing interest in cross-border collaborations among women’s movements. Questions include to what extent do the interconnectedness of gender issues globally foster feminist activism to address both local and global contexts (Desai, 2023). Additionally, the exploration of gender roles within specific cultural contexts, such as the experiences of Indigenous women or the implications of generational shifts in attitudes towards feminism, provides insights into the diverse manifestations of gender and feminism in organizational settings (Karim, 2024; Mori, 2023). These studies contribute to our understanding of cultural, socio-economic, and historical factors shaping women’s experiences and their engagements with feminist ideologies.

Curated List of Articles from the Management Learning Journal

This is a curated list of resources originated provided by the Management Learning Journal for the TAOP website. Many thanks to Jarryd Daymond and Cara Reed for assembling this.

Gray, D. E., & Goregaokar, H. (2010). Choosing an executive coach: The influence of gender on the coach-coachee matching process. Management Learning, 41(5), 525-544.

Coaching has enjoyed substantial commercial growth, but empirical support for its effectiveness is limited. Nowhere is this more so than in the matching process between coach and coachee. This study describes the results from a coaching programme in which coachees were asked to reflect on and justify their choice of coach. Initial, qualitative results suggested that female coachees favoured the choice of female coaches, partly as a role model of business success. Male coachees tended to justify the selection of a female coach as more approachable for the discussion of sensitive, personal issues. A minority of male respondents also displayed sexist attitudes in their comments on the selection process. Subsequent quantitative analysis of the data, however, revealed no bias towards the choice of either female or male coaches. While the results show no statistical significance in gender choices, for a minority of coachees, gender is a rather surprising factor in the selection process.

Kelan, E. K. (2013). The becoming of business bodies: Gender, appearance, and leadership development. Management Learning, 44(1), 45-61. 

The article uses media images of businesswomen to explore how Master of Business Administration students position themselves in relation to the businesswomen. Following feminist media studies, the article argues that subjects are “becoming” through media images. In order to explore subject formation processes through images, a business school setting, as a place that develops future leaders and that is dominated by men and masculinity, was chosen. The analysis of the interviews indicates that Master of Business Administration students position themselves in relation to the images of businesswomen by commenting on the appropriateness of dress based on the industry and by discussing that being sexually attractive is deemed unprofessional for women. While the subject positions that the Master of Business Administration students occupied were rather normative in nature, the article argues that images can be used as a helpful tool to allow reflection on normativity in relation to gender in leadership development. It is thereby possible to think about a displacement of norms by facilitating the use of alternative subject positions.

Stead, V. (2013). Learning to deploy (in) visibility: An examination of women leaders’ lived experiences. Management Learning, 44(1), 63-79. 

This article focuses on women’s learning from their lived experiences of leadership. In an examination of how six women leaders at a UK University learn to deploy (in)visibility, I draw on conceptualisations of (in)visibility more commonly found in feminist research. These include surface ideas of (in)visibility as states of exclusion or difference due to a lack of women in leadership roles, and deeper ideas of how states of visibility and invisibility are maintained through power relations. I also refer to ideas on how (in)visibility operates and is produced and reproduced through organisational processes and practices. This analysis extends critical perspectives of leadership learning and development. Specifically, it adds to understandings of the tacit nature of social and situated learning through an articulation of the ways in which gender and power operate in women’s learning of leadership from experiences of (in)visibility. This article concludes by indicating further areas for research, including more developed understandings of women’s learning to think strategically from experience, examining the role of management educators in revealing women’s leadership learning and identifying methodologies to examine women leaders’ learning experiences.

Panayiotou, A. (2015). Spacing gender, gendering space: A radical “strong plot” in film. Management Learning, 46(4), 427-443. 

This article seeks to contribute to the discussion on organizational space and gender by focusing on a powerful tool for management learning—popular culture and, in particular, Hollywood films. Taking a performative practice approach to the study of both gender and space and working with films featuring women in the central organizational role, this study explores the protagonists’ spatial practices as these are used to subvert, intentionally or unintentionally, organizational patriarchal structures. In this context, the study traces both how space is gendered through particular situated social practices and how gender is spaced, or how gender performativity is materialized in and through organizational space. Findings show that although on surface organizational spaces marginalize women, certain spatial practices can hybridize the workspace and transform the “margin” into a “space of radical openness.” This new space can also aid in subverting the traditional “strong plot” of the career woman, thus transforming both what we know and how we know in organizations.

Mughal, F., Gatrell, C., & Stead, V. (2018). Cultural politics and the role of the action learning facilitator: Analysing the negotiation of critical action learning in the Pakistani MBA through a Bourdieusian lens. Management Learning, 49(1), 69-85. 

This empirical study contributes to critical action learning research by theorizing the role of an action learning facilitator from a cultural perspective. Our article adds to critical action learning by conceptualizing the dynamics of facilitation in managing interpersonal politics within action learning sets. Employing Bourdieu’s notion of habitus as a theoretical lens, we explore both participant and facilitator accounts of action learning at three Pakistani business schools, shedding light on the culturally influenced social practices that shape their learning interactions. Through a critical interpretation of our data, we illuminate the challenges of facilitation by revealing how deeply ingrained power relations, within the context of gender and asymmetric relationships, influence participants’ ability to organize reflection. We contribute to critical action learning by theorizing the critical role of facilitator mediation in managing interpersonal and intra-group relations within the Pakistani MBA context, outlining the implications for the dynamics and facilitation of action learning.

Stead, V., & Elliott, C. (2019). Pedagogies of power: Media artefacts as public pedagogy for women’s leadership development. Management Learning, 50(2), 171-188. 

This article extends the idea of media artefacts as educational resources by examining web-based materials, specifically women’s ‘Power Lists’, to deepen understandings regarding media artefacts’ role in informing women’s leadership learning and development. Women’s underrepresentation in senior leadership roles places leadership development under scrutiny to develop theoretically informed frameworks that draw attention to gendered power relations in organisations. This article addresses this concern by drawing on cultural theory to theorise media artefacts as forms of public pedagogy. The pedagogic framework proposed presents a distinctive addition to leadership education methods that attend to the sociocultural and recognise the significance of informal learning to leadership learning. Recognising media artefacts’ pedagogic role enables individuals to examine in more detail the gendered nature of the social values and norms that inform leadership discourse, and how these values and norms are promoted, reproduced and sustained through media artefacts.

Blithe, S. J. (2019) “I Always Knew I was a Little Girly”: The gendering of skills in management training. Management Learning, 50(5), 517-533. 

This article examines the ways in which popular management texts organize individual behavior in gendered ways at work. Taking the ‘Strengths’ program as an example of a popular management text that shapes action, the study finds that even though the text itself makes no explicit reference to gender, it (re)produces and encourages gendered behavior and perpetuates stereotypes about gender and skill. Based on textual analysis, auto-ethnographic accounts, and critical reflection of strengths-based corporate training sessions, the study concludes with a discussion about the ways that organizational texts are consumed through a gendered lens.

Mavin, S., & Yusupova, M. (2021). Competition and gender: Time’s up on essentialist knowledge production. Management Learning, 52(1), 86-108.

This article is an intervention in current trends of thinking about competition and gender in essentialist and stereotypical ways. Such thinking has produced numerous comparative studies measuring competitiveness of women and men; ‘proving’ men as competitive and women as non-competitive. Based on experiments and written questionnaires, these studies reduce gender to perceived biological sex and treat competition as a ‘self-evident’, static and easily measurable phenomenon. To contribute new understandings and learning, we surface five fallacies of this comparative research, explaining why the approach is misleading, inequitable and socially harmful. Drawing upon gender as a social construction and women leaders’ narratives, we offer a blueprint for democratising knowledge production. We write differently, choosing not to provide a ‘balanced’ view of the field and construct competition as a processual, complex and contextually specific phenomenon with underlying gender dynamics, rather than a discrete, observable and fixed in time event. The article provides learning: for leaders and managers to resist automatic categorisation on the basis of perceived biological sex; for management educators to challenge the ways that leadership and management are traditionally taught; and, for executive coaches to support changes in practice, by embracing complexity of the contemporary contexts in which leaders operate.

Related Episodes from the Talking About Organizations Podcast

99: Gendering in Organizations — Joan Acker

Joan Acker’s 1990 article “Hierarchies, Jobs, Bodies: A Theory of Gendered Organizations” was a significant work in feminist theories of organizations. She charged that prior feminist research had wrongly assumed that organizational structures were gender neutral. Instead, everything about organizations from structures to symbols are inherently gendered, and until that was acknowledged and studied, organizations would continue to reinforce long-standing gender inequalities. The article is significant for its synthesis of a growing body of research that questioned the claims of gender neutrality in organizational practices that creates and sustains barriers to women’s equality in the workplace.

Read More

71: Managerial Behavior — Melville Dalton

2020 ushered in a full year of major change and renewed a lot of conversations about how we work, live, and cooperate in organizations and societies. In that spirit, we discuss Melville Dalton’s classic 1959 book “Men Who Manage: Fusions of Feeling and Theory in Administration.” The study provided an intimate look at how men (as these were all men at the time) entered into the managerial culture of a firm, how the separations between managers are workers were structured and maintained, and how managers felt about their standing — which ranged from secure to tenuous. In Part 1, we focus on the study itself, which is still very relevant not only for understanding what happens within the circle of managers but also how the boundaries can exclude others, particularly along gender lines.

Read More

35: The Managed Heart – Arlie Hochschild

The Managed Heart, originally published in 1983 by Dr. Arlie Hochschild, introduced the concept of emotional labour as a counterpart to the physical and mental labour performed in the scope of one’s duties. The importance of emotional labour is made clear in Dr. Hochschild’s descrption of flight attendants, who regardless of the dispositions of airline passengers, turbulence in the flight, or personal stress is required to act and behave in ways that minimize passenger anxiety and encourage them to fly with that airline again. Thus, the book explores the challenges of stress, protecting one’s personal identity and private life, differentiated (and often unfair) gender roles, miscommunication between supervisors and workers or workers and clients, and others.

Read More

17: Tokenism – Rosabeth Moss Kanter

In this episode, we read Rosabeth Moss Kanter’s paper “Some Effects of Proportions on Group Life: Skewed Sex Ratios and Responses to Token Women” (1977) which features as a chapter in her classic book, “Men and Women of the Corporation.” In this article, Kanter explores how interactions within a group or an organization are affected by the different numbers of people from distinct social types. In particular, she focuses on groups with skewed gender ratios: a high proportion of men and a small number of women – the tokens. The study is based on observations and interviews with sales team which had recently started to incorporate women in its workforce and shows how structural factors stifled their potential.

Read More

References

Acker, J. (1990). Hierarchies, jobs, bodies: A theory of gendered organizations. Gender & society, 4(2), 139-158.

Clegg, S. R., Clegg, S., & Hardy, C. (Eds.). (1999). Studying organization: Theory and method. Sage.

Hearn, J., & Parkin, P. W. (1983). Gender and organizations: A selective review and a critique of a neglected area. Organization studies, 4(3), 219-242.

Jump to: Importance | Foundational Works | Research Areas | Curated List of Articles | TAOP Resources | References

Rack BH (Human Dimension): Human Relations School | Org. Culture | Org. Climate | Org. Identity | Gender and Feminism

Aisle B (Major Theories): Classical Theories (BA) | Org. Behavior – Individual (BB1) | Org. Behavior – Groups & Teams (BB2) | Org. Behavior – Systems & Culture (BB3) | Contingency Theories (BC) | Org. Design (BD) | Org. Development & Change (BG) | Human Relations Theories (BH) | Institution Theories (BI) | Leadership Theories (BL) | Modern Management Perspectives (BM) | Postmodern & Critical Theories (BQ) | Sociological Perspectives (BS)

Resources: Main Page | Research Methods (A) | Major Theories (B) | Issues and Contemporary Topics (C) | Professional Education (D)