Rack AF – Fieldwork and Qualitative Methods

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Rack AF (Qualitative Methods): Case Studies | Ethnography (Ethnography Atelier – external) | Grounded Theory | Interviews | Coding Methods

Qualitative research methods are widely used in organizational studies and other social sciences due to their ability to explore complex phenomena, uncover deep insights, and provide rich, detailed descriptions of human behavior and organizational dynamics. However, like all research methods, they come with both significant benefits and challenges. Here’s an overview of the advantages and limitations of using qualitative research methods in organizational research followed by a brief introduction to the most common methods (dedicated pages for each major method are forthcoming).

Jump to: Advantages | Limitations | Methods | TAOP Episodes | References

Advantages of Using Qualitative Research Methods

This is a short list of advantages of qualitative research, and many of the episodes we have done on this program used qualitative methods.

Rich, In-Depth Understanding. Qualitative methods (e.g., interviews, case studies, ethnography) allow researchers to explore a phenomenon in its full context, capturing not just surface-level behaviors or outcomes, but also the meanings, motivations, and experiences that underlie those behaviors. This depth of insight is particularly valuable for understanding complex organizational issues like leadership, culture, and employee satisfaction. An example of this is the multi-year study done by Roethlisberger & Dickson that we covered in Episode 119.

Qualitative research is excellent for uncovering the why and how behind organizational actions and decisions. For instance, while quantitative data might tell you how many employees are satisfied with a new policy, qualitative data can explain the reasons behind that satisfaction or dissatisfaction. They can also emphasize the context in which organizational phenomena occur. This means researchers can better understand how specific factors (e.g., company culture, team dynamics, or external market conditions) influence organizational outcomes. We have many examples of this in our program, but will highlight Episode 34 where we covered Eric Trist & Ken Bamforth’s coal-mining study that led to the formulation of sociotechnical system theory.

Flexibility in Data Collection. Qualitative research is more flexible compared to quantitative methods. For example, in an interview, researchers can adjust questions based on the responses they receive, which allows them to follow up on interesting leads or clarify ambiguous points. This adaptability is especially useful when studying complex, unpredictable environments like organizations. The Hawthorne studies provide a great example of this (see Episode 9).

They are also beneficial in exploratory research, where the goal is to investigate new phenomena, build theories, or generate hypotheses rather than test existing theories or hypotheses. Here we can offer Alvin Gouldner’s study of a gypsum mine that uncovered identifiable patterns in the generation of bureaucratic rules (Episode 74).

Ability to Study Complex, Unstructured Phenomena. Organizations are made up of individuals with diverse perspectives, experiences, and interpretations. Qualitative methods are well-suited for capturing the subjectivity of organizational members, such as employees’ feelings, beliefs, and personal experiences. For instance, qualitative interviews can provide a deep understanding of leadership styles, team collaboration, and organizational culture that is difficult to quantify.

Organizational processes (e.g., decision-making, change management, innovation) often involve multiple actors, stakeholders, and contexts. Qualitative research allows researchers to capture the complex interplay of these dynamics, which might not be visible in numerical data alone. We have done several episodes on this (see Rack BG) and one of the relevant examples is Burns & Stalker’s studies of innovation that we covered in Episode 98.

Incorporates Multiple Perspectives. Qualitative research often seeks to give a voice to underrepresented or marginalized groups within organizations (e.g., minority employees, lower-level workers). This can help highlight issues of power, equity, and social justice, which might not be captured in more quantitative approaches. Techniques like focus groups, interviews, and participant observation can generate data from various sources, providing a comprehensive view of the phenomenon being studied. An example of this is our episode on Rosabeth Moss Kanter’s study on tokenism (Episode 17).

Theory Development and Hypothesis Generation. Qualitative research is particularly effective for inductive theory development, where researchers use data to build or refine theories rather than test pre-existing ones. The Grounded Theory approach, for example, allows researchers to develop theories based on the data itself, making it especially useful in areas where little theory exists or where existing theories are insufficient. Qualitative research often produces findings that are directly relevant to specific organizational contexts. This makes it easier for managers or policymakers to apply insights gained from qualitative studies to their own situations. Quite a number of the studies we have examined are ethnographies, such as Van Maanen’s study of police socialization that we covered in Episode 38.

Capturing Organizational Change. Qualitative methods like ethnography or case studies can track organizational change over time, capturing the evolution of culture, leadership, and strategies in ways that quantitative methods may not be able to. This is especially useful for studying dynamic, long-term organizational processes such as transformation, mergers, or leadership succession. It also can lead to whole new streams of theory such as the Resource Dependence Perspective, which we covered in an episode on Pfeffer & Salancik’s famous work (Episode 116).

Limitations of Using Qualitative Research Methods

Of course, no method is perfect for every study — each one has its limitations and those must be acknowledged. Here is a short list that generally apply to field research.

Subjectivity and Researcher Bias. Qualitative research in general largely involves subjectivity, as the researcher plays a more active role in data collection, interpretation, and analysis. This can introduce biases, especially in interviews or ethnographic studies where the researcher’s values, expectations, or personal perspectives may influence the findings. Reflexivity—the process of acknowledging and managing personal biases—is crucial but can be challenging to maintain.

The process of interpreting qualitative data often requires researchers to make judgments about the meanings of patterns and themes, which can be influenced by their personal experiences or theoretical orientations.

Limited Generalizability. Qualitative research typically involves smaller sample sizes compared to quantitative studies. While this allows for deeper insights into specific cases or groups, it can limit the generalizability of findings to larger populations or different organizational contexts. Qualitative research findings are often specific to the particular time, place, or group studied, which means they may not be easily applicable to all organizations. For example, an ethnographic study of one company’s culture may not be directly applicable to a different organization, even within the same industry.

Time-Consuming and Resource-Intensive. Qualitative research takes time — no way around it. It often requires a lot of effort for data collection, whether using methods like interviews, focus groups, or participant observation, which can take hours of direct interaction with participants. Moreover, qualitative data analysis (e.g., coding interviews or field notes) can be highly labor-intensive and requires careful attention to detail. Anyone who has done field work probably has tells to tell of having to code and analyze a thousand pages of transcribed text (and in the days before automated transcription, it was the researcher doing the transcribing)!

In some qualitative studies, especially interviews or focus groups, researchers need to continue collecting data until they reach saturation—the point at which no new information or findings are emerging from the data (Saunders, et al., 2018). Figuring out when one hits saturation sometimes requires experience.

Issues of Validity and Reliability. Given the subjective nature of qualitative analysis, ensuring validity (whether the research measures what it intends to measure) and reliability (the consistency of results over time) can be challenging. Different researchers may interpret the same data in different ways, leading to concerns about the trustworthiness of the findings.

Because qualitative research often involves context-specific data collection and interpretation, replication of studies is harder compared to quantitative research. This raises questions about the robustness and reliability of qualitative findings.

Ethical Considerations. In qualitative research, especially when using methods like interviews, focus groups, or ethnography, there are often ethical concerns related to informed consent, privacy, and confidentiality. Ensuring participants’ rights are protected and that sensitive information is handled responsibly is crucial, but the more personal or intimate the data, the more challenging these issues become.

Researchers conducting qualitative research must also be aware of the power dynamics between themselves and their participants. For example, in organizational research, there can be power imbalances between researchers and employees, which may influence how participants behave or respond in interviews or observations.

Prominent Field Research and Qualitative Methods

Qualitative research methods in organization studies encompass a variety of approaches that allow researchers to explore complex social phenomena within organizational contexts. The major qualitative methods include case studies, grounded theory, ethnography, and interviews. Each method has its own set of advantages and disadvantages, which are critical for researchers to consider when designing their studies.

Please note that the resources identified below do not constitute endorsement but are offered for informational purposes.

General. There are several books that cover the gamut of qualitative methods and field work. A popular book is Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage. This book is comprehensive in its approach to research design and as the title suggests includes qualitative, quantitative, and “mixed methods” studies combining the two.

Case Studies. Case Studies are one of the most prevalent qualitative research methods in organizational studies. They provide an in-depth understanding of specific instances within organizations, allowing researchers to explore the nuances of organizational behavior and culture. Case studies allow analyzing organizational aspects, particularly in information technology contexts, where they serve as a primary qualitative research technique (Pettinao, 2009). The advantages of case studies include their ability to provide rich, contextual insights and the flexibility to adapt to various research questions. However, they can also be criticized for their limited generalizability and potential researcher bias, as findings may not be easily applicable to other settings (García & Gluesing, 2013).

One book that provides an in-depth look at conducting case study research is Yin, R. K. (2018). Case study research and applications, 6th ed. Sage.

Ethnography. Ethnography involves immersive observation and participation in the daily lives of organizational members, providing a comprehensive view of organizational culture and practices. Zickar and Carter note that ethnographic methods have historically played a crucial role in organizational research, offering deep insights into worker experiences (Zickar & Carter, 2010). The strengths of ethnography lie in its ability to capture the complexities of social interactions and cultural contexts within organizations. Nonetheless, it can be resource-intensive and may raise ethical concerns regarding researcher involvement and the impact of observation on participants’ behavior (Pettigrew, 2012).

For ethnography, in addition to referring to Creswell & Creswell above, there is also a very active community of scholars working together to promote ethnographic research. Started by our own Pedro Monteiro, the Ethnography Atelier is a tremendous resource for budding ethnographers.

Grounded Theory. Grounded Theory is another significant qualitative approach, particularly recognized for its systematic methodology in theory development. It allows researchers to generate theories based on data collected from participants, which can lead to new insights into organizational dynamics. This method is known for building robust theoretical frameworks within management research (Shah & Corley, 2006) through its focus on generating theories that are closely tied to empirical data. However, it can be time-consuming and requires a high level of analytical skill to ensure that the theory developed is grounded in the data collected (Azmi et al., 2019).

In addition to Creswell & Creswell above, one book that focuses on the design and conduct of grounded theory research is Urquhart, C. (2012). Grounded theory for qualitative research: A practical guide. Sage.

Interviews. Interviews, particularly semi-structured and convergent interviewing techniques, are widely used in qualitative research to gather detailed personal accounts and perspectives from organizational members. Interviews allow for flexibility in data collection and can yield rich qualitative data. However, they are subject to limitations such as interviewer bias and the potential for participants to provide socially desirable responses rather than candid insights (Gough, 2016).

One book that focuses on interviewing for qualitative research is Seidman, I. (2019). Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide for researchers in education and the social sciences, 5th ed. Teachers College Press.

Related TAOP Episodes, Events, and Notes

119: Management & the Worker — Roethlisberger & Dickson

We return for another look at the Hawthorne Studies through Fritz Roethlisberger and William Dickson’s 1939 book Management and the Worker. The work chronicles five years of experiments that initially sought the optimal conditions for increased worker performance but evolved into an examination of the social controls that worker exercise over themselves for self-preservation against managerial decisions. It also includes an introspective look into the researchers themselves as they had to design new experiments to make sense of the surprising and contradictory findings. The book is incredibly detailed and laid the foundation for the development of the Human Relations tradition in organization studies.
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103: Bringing Work Back In — Barley & Kunda

In their 2001 Organization Science article “Bringing Work Back In,” Steven Barley and Gideon Kunda lamented how the study of work, its organization, and its performance shifted after the 1950s. Work was the center of attention among the classic era of organization studies beginning with Frederic Taylor, but afterward, the focus shifted to post-bureaucratic concepts such as boundaryless organizations and networks. Barley and Kunda argues that these new ideas are not grounded in rigorous studies of how people perform work in such new organizations.
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100: Special Episode — The State of Organization Studies

For our 100th episode, we look outward toward the various fields of study that have fed into our podcast – organization studies, organization theory, management science, and others – and ask how strong or healthy those fields are. The disciple has, after all, gotten very big with thousands of scholars around the world doing important field work, research, and consultancy projects. But it has also become more fragmented and is experiencing the stresses and strains of a mature profession. So in this one-part reflection, we think about what we have learned so far in 100 episodes stretching over 7-1/2 years and where we might like to see the field go in the coming years.
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95: Labor-Management Relations – Tom Lupton

This month, we discuss examine Lupton’s famous study of worker-management relations, “On the Shop Floor: Two Studies of Workshop Organization and Output” published in 1963. Tom Lupton spent 12 months as a factor worker in two different settings examining why workers intentionally worked at a level below management expectations. He found that social structures formed that protected workers from overuse or abuse by management and ensured a stable pay. These structures discouraged workers from working too hard or not hard enough. In Part 1, we will examine the cases in depth and present Lupton’s findings.
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94: Situated Learning – Lave & Wenger

This month, we discuss Jean Lave & Etienne Wenger’s Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation, published in 1991. This short but powerful book presents a new way of thinking about adult learning as a social activity in which experienced members of a group or community of practice share their knowledge with new members to perpetuate the group identity. They present five case studies – one by Lave herself with four from other researchers – to help broaden the perspective of how situated learning works social involvement in which newer members are initiated through the exercise of low-risk or controlled tasks.
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75: Institutionalization – Philip Selznick

Philip Selznick seeded the origins of institutional theory in organization studies. He brought attention to the symbolic aspects of administration, such as when organizational tools and processes assume an importance beyond their concrete technical value—what he labelled institutionalization. In this episode, we discuss one of his classic works from 1949, TVA and the Grass Roots: A Study in the Sociology of Formal Organization that contributed to his theory of organization through an examination of the Tennessee Valley Authority — was formed to foster recovery from the Great Depression.
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71: Managerial Behavior — Melville Dalton

2020 ushered in a full year of major change and renewed a lot of conversations about how we work, live, and cooperate in organizations and societies. In that spirit, we discuss Melville Dalton’s classic 1959 book “Men Who Manage: Fusions of Feeling and Theory in Administration.” The study provided an intimate look at how men (as these were all men at the time) entered into the managerial culture of a firm, how the separations between managers are workers were structured and maintained, and how managers felt about their standing — which ranged from secure to tenuous. In Part 1, we focus on the study itself, which is still very relevant not only for understanding what happens within the circle of managers but also how the boundaries can exclude others, particularly along gender lines.
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52: Management in Practice – Rosemary Stewart

What do managers do in practice? How do they spend their time (or put another way, how does their time spend them)? Are there differences in the demands of managers in different positions, or withiin different organizations? These were the questions that famed management theorist Rosemary Stewart set out to uncover in her research back in the 1960s, resulting in the first edition of this episode’s subject–her book Managers and Their Jobs: A Study of the Similarities and Differences in the Ways Managers Spend Their Time.
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38: Socialization and Occupational Communities – Van Maanen

In this episode, we examine John Van Maanen’s classic ethnographic study of police recruits from an urban police department in the U.S. “Police socialization: A longitudinal examination of job attitudes in an urban police department,” published in Administrative Science Quarterly in 1975, presents Van Maanen’s study on the socialization process of new police officers from their training and indoctrination at the police academy to their early months on the beat.
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34: Sociotechnical Systems – Trist and Bamforth

We discuss important article by Eric Trist and Ken Bamforth, “Some Social and Psychological Consequences of the Longwall Method of Coal-Getting,” published in the journal Human Relations in 1951. Eric Trist was a British social scientist best known for his contributions to the field of organization development and one of the founders of the Tavistock Institute. Ken Bamforth was a miner and industrial fellow of the Tavistock Institute. The article’s subtitle is an examination of the psychological situation and defences of a work group in relation to the social structure and technological content of the work system, and explores how a technological change in the coal-mining industry tore apart the social structure of the workers who were supposed to have benefitted from the change. The technological change in question was the mechanization of the process of mining and extracting coal along a very long face, as opposed to the previous ‘hand-got’ methods where small teams would dig out coal from smaller faces.
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9: Hawthorne Studies – Elton Mayo

The Hawthorne studies take their name from the Hawthorne works, a factory near Chicago which belonged to Western Electric. Even though these studies are traditionally solely associated with Mayo’s name, most of the experimental work was carried out by Fritz Roethlisberger (his graduate assistant) and William Dickson (head of the department of employee relations at Western Electric). The experiments took place between 1924 and 1932 and were commissioned because the company wanted to understand which was the optimal level of lighting to increase workers’ productivity. Mayo’s work “The Social problems of an Industrial Civilization” (1945) is the text we are reading for this episode. In this book, Mayo reports on a number of his research projects – including the studies in the Textile Mill in Philadelphia and the Hawthorne Studies previously mentioned – and provides an ambitious social commentary on industrial society.
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Related Resource Pages

Aisle A – Research Methods

Curated list of resources regarding research methods for students of organization studies. Includes qualitative and quantitative methods, ethics and human subjects protections, and knowledge repositories.
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Rack AA – Conduct and Ethics of Research

Curated list of resources regarding the proper and ethical conduct of research. Among the important concepts are human subjects research protections, informed consent, validity and reliability, and avoiding conflicts of interest.
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Rack AQ – Quantitative Methods

Curated list of resources regarding the effective, efficient, and appropriate use of quantitative methods including surveys, operations research & systems analysis, and others for conducting organization research.
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References

Azmi, Z., Nasution, A., Wardayani, W., Muda, I., Supriyanto, S., Rizal, S., … & Hidayat, R. (2019). Grounded theory in accounting research.. https://doi.org/10.4108/eai.18-7-2019.2288566

Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage.

García, D. and Gluesing, J. (2013). Qualitative research methods in international organizational change research. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 26(2), 423-444. https://doi.org/10.1108/09534811311328416

Gough, B. (2016, January 28). Qualitative research in psychology [Video]. Sage Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473973671

OpenAI. (2024). What are the benefits and challenges of using qualitative methods for organization research. ChatGPT (November 2022 version) [Large Language Model].

Pettigrew, A. (2012). The conduct of qualitative research in organizational settings. Corporate Governance an International Review, 21(2), 123-126. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8683.2012.00925.x

Pettinao, D. (2009). Information technology, marketing and organizational factor in corporate e-banking: a qualitative research., 7-14. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7908-2148-2_2

Saunders, B., Sim, J., Kingstone, T., Baker, S., Waterfield, J., Bartlam, B., … & Jinks, C. (2018). Saturation in qualitative research: exploring its conceptualization and operationalization. Quality & quantity, 52, 1893-1907.

Scite. (2024). What are the major qualitative research methods used in organization studies and what are their advantages and disadvantages. Scite (April 2024 version) [Large Language Model].

Shah, S. and Corley, K. (2006). Building better theory by bridging the quantitative–qualitative divide*. Journal of Management Studies, 43(8), 1821-1835. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6486.2006.00662.x

Seidman, I. (2019). Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide for researchers in education and the social sciences, 5th ed. Teachers College Press.

Urquhart, C. (2012). Grounded theory for qualitative research: A practical guide. Sage.

Yin, R. K. (2018). Case study research and applications, 6th ed. Sage.

Zickar, M. and Carter, N. (2010). Reconnecting with the spirit of workplace ethnography. Organizational Research Methods, 13(2), 304-319. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428109338070

The inclusion of external links are for informational purposes only, and do not necessarily constitute endorsement by TAOP or any of its members.

Jump to: Advantages | Limitations | Methods | TAOP Episodes | References

Rack AF (Qualitative Methods): Case Studies | Ethnography (Ethnography Atelier – external) | Grounded Theory | Interviews | Coding Methods

Aisle A (Research Methods): Main Page | Conduct & Ethics of Research (AA) | Field Studies & Qualitative Methods (AF) | Historical & Archival Methods (AH) | Quantitative Methods (AQ) | Models and Simulations in Research (AS)

Resources: Main Page | Research Methods (A) | Major Theories (B) | Issues and Contemporary Topics (C) | Professional Education (D)