Rack CE – Employee Well-Being & Mental Health

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Aisle C (Topics and Issues): Agility and Adaptability (CA) | Digital Technologies (CD) | Employee Well-Being (CE) | Inequality & Justice (CI) | 21st Century Leadership (CL) | Resource Management (CR) | Sustainability (CS) | Meaningful Work (CW)

Rack CE (Employee Well-Being): Building Resilience | Mental Health and Stress | Work-Life Balance

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Why are Employee Well-Being and Mental Health Important Contemporary Topics?

The first question one should ask is what do we mean by employee well-being and mental health? Employee well-being refers to the overall health, happiness, and satisfaction of individuals in the workplace and encompasses a broad range of factors. Employee well-being is a multifaceted concept that encompasses various dimensions of an individual’s experience within the workplace, including psychological, physical, and social aspects. It is increasingly recognized as a critical factor influencing not only individual performance but also organizational success. The importance of employee well-being has gained significant attention in recent years, driven by the growing acknowledgment of its impact on productivity, job satisfaction, and overall organizational health.

There are multiple lenses by which one can appreciate and assess employee well-being in an organizational setting. In practical terms, employee well-being is often viewed as the combination of factors that are (at least in part) transacted between the organization and the individual. These include financial well-being (e.g., sufficient and fair pay and benefits); physical, mental, and spiritual health; and work-life balance. By “transacted,” it does not necessarily mean that the organization is giving something explicitly to the worker or vice versa, but that the state of the organization’s culture or psychological climate can impact the employee’s mental health and consequently result in diminished performance.

A second lens looks at employee well-being in terms of the mental state, or “happiness,” of the individual that carries over into feelings about work, among other things. An example of this is the PERMA model proposed in Seligman (2018) that describe a construct of well-being with five components — positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. This model can be used to think about how well-being can be cultivated in the workplace, ultimately contributing to enhanced employee motivation and health, as well as improved corporate competitiveness (Kun et al., 2016). Employees who experience high levels of well-being are more likely to be productive, engaged, and committed to their organizations, thereby fostering a positive work environment that benefits all stakeholders involved (He et al., 2022).

Regardless of the model used, the topic has become extremely important given the rise of mental health concerns following the COVID-19 pandemic and the increase of “burnout” and other organizational dysfunctions stemming from increasing cynicism about work (see Rack CW). There are also long-standing myths that continue to stigmatizing: (a) the topics of mental health and illness, (b) those seeking help for depression or other mental health concerns, and (c) actions by organizations, parents, and others in positions of power to accommodate mental health concerns among their charges. However, the dangers of these myths can manifest as forms of rebellion such as quiet quitting or coffee badging, weakened worker performance, or in the worst cases, workplace violence. Hence, managers and researchers alike are interesting in better understanding the antecedents of these problems and taking precautionary actions against them.

Relevant Theories or Literature Streams

The literature on employee well-being and mental health spans multiple academic and professional fields, integrating concepts from psychology, organizational behavior, human resources, and health sciences. There are several key streams of literature that help shape understanding and guide practice in these areas. Below are some of the major literature streams, but this is not intended to represent a comprehensive set. Feedback and additions are always welcome.

Psychological Well-Being and Mental Health in the Workplace. This stream focuses on the psychological aspects of well-being and mental health in the workplace. It examines how employees’ mental health and psychological functioning impact their work performance, engagement, and overall satisfaction. Some related topics of contemporary interest include self-acceptance, purpose in life, and autonomy; mental health disorders (e.g., depression, anxiety, burnout); employee engagement and motivation; psychological safety and workplace culture; emotional resilience; and various of the below literature streams that reflect branches from this stream. Some influential models include the aforementioned Seligman PERMA model, Carol Ryff’s Model of Psychological Well-Being (Ryff & Keyes, 1995), and Maslach’s Burnout Inventory (Maslach & Jackson, 1981).

Workplace Stress and Coping. This stream investigates the sources of stress within the workplace and how employees cope with or mitigate its effects. It looks at stressors such as workload, role conflict, lack of control, and organizational change. Also, with the increasing recognition of mental health issues in the workplace, research is focusing on the effectiveness of various interventions and support programs to help employees cope. Studies have highlighted the benefits of initiatives such as animal-assisted therapy and mental health training for leaders in improving employee morale and reducing burnout (Etingen et al., 2020; Chang, 2024). The implementation of well-being programs that address both physical and mental health is critical for fostering a supportive work environment (Wieneke et al., 2019). Some key concepts include the Job Demands-Resources Model (JD-R) by Karasek (1979) that emphasizes how job demands and available resources affect well-being, Cohen & Wills’ Social Support Theory (1985) that models the roles of social support in coping with stress, and the Job Demands-Resources Model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007).

Occupational Health Psychology. Occupational Health Psychology is an interdisciplinary field that studies the relationship between work, health, and well-being. It aims to apply psychological principles to improve both the physical and mental health of workers. Key concepts include work-related health risks such as workplace violence and exposure to toxins and other hazards, job stress and its physiological effects such as cardiovascular disease and chronic fatigue, and implementation and effectiveness of wellness initiatives and worksite interventions. Some influential models and concepts include The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Framework for Worker Well-Being, Sonnentag’s (2001) Recovery from Work Stress framework, and the Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire (COPSOQ) (Kristensen et al., 2005).

Work-Life Balance and Conflict. The interplay between work and nonwork life and its impact on mental health is another significant area of research. Key concepts include work-life conflict vs. work-life integration, implementation and impacts of various work arrangements (e.g., remote and hybrid work, flexible hours, return-to-office policies), addressing family and caregiving responsibilities and their conflicts with work, and general stressors related to work-life conflicts. Studies have examined how work-family conflict affects employee well-being and organizational performance, emphasizing the need for organizations to implement policies that support work-life balance (Huang, 2024; Alsheweir, 2023). The impact of flexible working arrangements on reducing work-nonwork conflict and enhancing psychological well-being is also a growing focus (Alsheweir, 2023). Some influential models include Greenhaus & Beutell’s (1985) Work-Life Conflict Model, Kossek’s Work-Life Integration Models (Kossek & Lambert, 2004), and Frone’s (2003) Work-Family Conflict Model.

Some Contemporary Areas of Research

Please note that this is not to be considered an exhaustive list. We welcome feedback to ensure currency on contemporary challenges and research efforts. This is also not intended to provide a comprehensive look at ongoing research in any of these areas but just to highlight some of the specific topic areas being pursued as of this writing.

Leadership and Employee Well-Being. Research in this stream focuses on how different leadership styles influence employee well-being. For instance, studies have shown that transformational leadership positively impacts psychological well-being by fostering a supportive and motivating work environment (Arnold, 2017). Similarly, servant leadership has been linked to enhanced creativity and employee well-being through the promotion of psychological safety (Wang et al., 2022). The role of strengths-based leadership in creating a positive climate that contributes to employee psychological well-being is also gaining attention (Ding & Yu, 2021).

Psychological Safety and Workplace Culture. Psychological safety is another factor in promoting employee well-being. Research indicates that environments characterized by high psychological safety allow employees to express themselves without fear of negative consequences, which in turn reduces stress and burnout (Wang et al., 2022; Rathnayake, 2023). Studies have explored the relationship between psychological safety and various outcomes, such as job performance and employee engagement, highlighting its importance in fostering a healthy workplace culture (Selander et al., 2023; Dollard & Bakker, 2010).

Impacts of Organizational Practices. This literature stream investigates how various organizational practices, such as talent management and employee engagement initiatives, influence employee well-being. Research has shown that comprehensive well-being strategies, like those implemented by the Mayo Clinic, can significantly enhance employee satisfaction and engagement (Wieneke et al., 2019). Additionally, the role of psychological capital—comprising hope, efficacy, resilience, and optimism—in promoting employee well-being is being explored (Wardani & Noviyani, 2020).

Mental Health Interventions and Support Programs. With the increasing recognition of mental health issues in the workplace, research is focusing on the effectiveness of various interventions and support programs. Studies have highlighted the benefits of initiatives such as animal-assisted therapy and mental health training for leaders in improving employee morale and reducing burnout (Etingen et al., 2020; Chang, 2024). The implementation of well-being programs that address both physical and mental health is critical for fostering a supportive work environment (Wieneke et al., 2019).

Employee Engagement and Job Performance. The relationship between employee engagement and well-being is a prominent area of study. Research indicates that higher levels of employee engagement are associated with improved job performance and overall well-being (Voorde et al., 2011). This stream emphasizes the importance of creating an engaging work environment that prioritizes employee satisfaction and mental health.

Impacts of Crises on Employee Well-Being. The COVID-19 pandemic has prompted research into the effects of crises on employee mental health and well-being. Studies have examined how fear and uncertainty during the pandemic have impacted employee outcomes, including turnover intention and psychological distress (Selem et al., 2022). There is also an active literature stream on workplace isolation that we covered during the pandemic in Episode 66. This area of research highlights the need for organizations to adapt their well-being strategies in response to external challenges.

Some Foundational Works in Employee Well-Being

Although different terms were used, employee well-being and mental health were recognized as important factors in the workplace for a long time.

Hawthorne Studies. Conducted in the 1920s and 1930s, these experiments uncovered the importance of social relations in the workplace and worker satisfaction, but still within the confines of worker performance and not well-being in its own right. These studies revealed that factors such as social interactions and employee morale significantly impacted productivity, leading to the conclusion that psychological aspects of work are crucial for overall well-being (see our discussions on the Hawthorne Studies, including Episode 9 and Episode 119). This foundational insight paved the way for later theories that integrated psychological well-being into organizational practices.

Maslow’s Theories of Motivation. In the 1950s, Maslow introduced a model that categorized human motivations (see Episode 3), including the need for belonging and esteem, which are vital for employee well-being. Maslow posited that fulfilling these needs leads to greater job satisfaction and productivity. This model has been widely referenced in discussions about workplace motivation and employee engagement, emphasizing the necessity of addressing psychological needs to enhance well-being.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory. Additionally, the work of Herzberg in the 1960s (see Episode 101) further refined our understanding of job satisfaction and its relationship to employee motivation. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory distinguished between hygiene factors (such as salary and working conditions) and motivators (such as recognition and achievement), suggesting that true job satisfaction arises from the latter. This theory underscored the importance of intrinsic factors in promoting employee well-being, influencing subsequent research and organizational policies aimed at enhancing workplace satisfaction.

Related TAOP Episodes, Events, and Notes

109: Emergence of Mental Health Professions – Abbott

In this episode, we return to Andrew Abbott’s The System of Professions: An Essay on the Division of Expert Labor from 1989 to study in depth one of his case studies that may illuminate the present-day mental health crises gripping many nations from the COVID-19 pandemic. “The Construction of the Personal Problems Jurisdiction” chronicles how social changes from the Industrial Revolution led to the maladjustment and isolation felt by many newly industrialized workers who could no longer reach back to the stable social structure from whence they came. As a result, several professions emerged and competed for jurisdiction over the diagnosis and treatment of personal problems.
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88: Social Defenses Against Anxiety — Isabel Menzies

This month’s episode examines one of the classic studies from the Tavistock Institute, Isabel Menzies’ “A Case-Study in the Functioning of Social Systems as a Defence Against Anxiety.” This famous study of how a teaching hospital developed odd and somewhat dysfunctional methods for protecting its nurses from anxiety and stress by effectively isolating nurses from the patients to prevent emotional attachment. Nursing students witnessing these methods in practice found them in violation of their expectations regarding care and their professional calling, and were quitting. What were these methods and why did they come about?
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66: Workplace Isolation – Forester

In this episode (which took place in the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic), we explore the social and emotional impacts to the worker on having to work from home. For some workers, the concept of telework is hardly new. But many other vocations place great value on regular social contact with clients and customers. These include teachers, doctors, lawyers, public servants, and many others. The sudden thrust to teleworking for an unknown period of time has raised questions as to how these workers are coping with the new normal.
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53: Taylorism in Motion — Charlie Chaplin’s Modern Times

We discuss Charlie Chaplin’s 1936 film “Modern Times” balances great physical comedy with powerful social commentary. Chaplin portrayed a hapless Worker on an assembly line who is tormented both by supervisors and the work itself. After being subjected to a humiliating experiment intended to improve the line’s efficiency, the Worker runs through a series of rotating jobs, stints in jail, and other misadventures as he tries to find his purpose in life.
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49: Engineered Culture and Normative Control – Gideon Kunda

Originally published in 1992, Gideon Kunda’s ethnographic study of a high-tech corporation altered the discourse on organizational culture. “Tech,” the firm being studied, was a firm on the rise and saw itself as a leader and ground breaker in the rapidly growing high-tech industries of the 1980s. But as the firm grew, it began indoctrinating its tried-and-true hard-work formula in aggressive and unhelpful ways.
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35: The Managed Heart – Arlie Hochschild

The Managed Heart, originally published in 1983 by Dr. Arlie Hochschild, introduced the concept of emotional labour as a counterpart to the physical and mental labour performed in the scope of one’s duties. The importance of emotional labour is made clear in Dr. Hochschild’s descrption of flight attendants, who regardless of the dispositions of airline passengers, turbulence in the flight, or personal stress is required to act and behave in ways that minimize passenger anxiety and encourage them to fly with that airline again. Thus, the book explores the challenges of stress, protecting one’s personal identity and private life, differentiated (and often unfair) gender roles, miscommunication between supervisors and workers or workers and clients, and others.
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20: High Reliability in Practice – USN Rear Admiral Tom Mercer

Based around a classic work by Weick and Roberts (1993) on Collective Mind in Organizations – where the authors observed and analyzed the way people on the deck of an aircraft carrier function in a collective manner – this episode brings you a discussion of how concepts of High Reliability (see also Episode 11) flesh out in real life!
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13: Banana Time – Donald Roy

One of the most famous ethnographic works, Banana Time: Job Satisfaction and Informal Interaction describes Donald F. Roy’s experience of working as a drill press operator (as in the picture on this page) for two months. Set against the backdrop of Taylor-inspired Scientific Management, the paper provides a thick description of the setting, the tools of work and, most importantly, behaviour and dynamics of the group of workers whom Roy was assigned to work with.
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Available Resource Pages

Aisle C – Management Topics

Curated lists of resources regarding contemporary issues, topics, and challenges that are driving today’s organization research. Includes a wide range of subjects from the gig economy to the meaning of work
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Rack CI – Inequality and Justice

Curated list of resources regarding the study of diversity, equity, inclusion, and accessibility in organizations and the removal of discrimination and systemic biases that deny basic human dignity and respect
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Rack CR — Resource Management

Curated list of resources regarding the effective and efficient use of resources in organizations — raw materials, people, finance, technologies, and information. Each type of resource is a research area on its own, but together they represent a broad range of challenging management decisions
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Rack CW – Meaningful Work

Curated list of resources regarding present-day attitudes toward work and work-life balance. Includes discussing traditional vs. contemporary work models, employee well-being, and member commitment to the organization
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References

Alsheweir, N. (2023). The effects of flexible working interventions on work-nonwork conflict and psychological well-being: a review of literature. Journal of Economics Management and Trade, 29(8), 51-65. https://doi.org/10.9734/jemt/2023/v29i81114

Arnold, K. (2017). Transformational leadership and employee psychological well-being: a review and directions for future research. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 22(3), 381-393. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000062

Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2007). The Job Demands-Resources model: State of the art. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22(3), 309–328. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940710733115

Chang, R. (2024). The impact of employees’ health and well-being on job performance. Journal of Education Humanities and Social Sciences, 29, 372-378. https://doi.org/10.54097/9ft7db35

Cohen, S., & Wills, T. A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 98(2), 310–357. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.98.2.310

Ding, H. and Yu, E. (2021). Strengths-based leadership and employee psychological well-being: a moderated mediation model. Journal of Career Development, 49(5), 1108-1121. https://doi.org/10.1177/08948453211018807

Dollard, M. and Bakker, A. (2010). Psychosocial safety climate as a precursor to conducive work environments, psychological health problems, and employee engagement. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83(3), 579-599. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317909×470690

Etingen, B., Martínez, R., Smith, B., Hogan, T., Miller, L., Saban, K., … & Weaver, F. (2020). Developing an animal-assisted support program for healthcare employees. BMC Health Services Research, 20(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-020-05586-8

Frone, M. R. (2003). Work-family balance. In J. C. Quick & L. E. Tetrick (Eds.), Handbook of occupational health psychology (pp. 143–162). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10474-007

Greenhaus, J. H., & Beutell, N. J. (1985). Sources and conflict between work and family roles. The Academy of Management Review, 10(1), 76–88. https://doi.org/10.2307/258214

He, P., Wang, J., Zhou, H., Zhang, C., Liu, Q., & Xie, X. (2022). Workplace friendship, employee well-being and knowledge hiding: the moderating role of the perception of chaxu climate. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1036579

Huang, X. (2024). The impacts of work-family conflict and corporate innovation on organizational performance. Sage Open, 14(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440241247626

Karasek, R. (1979). Job demands, job decision latitude and mental strain: Implications for job redesign. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24, 285-308.

Kristensen, T. S., Hannerz, H., Høgh, A., & Borg, V. (2005). The Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire-a tool for the assessment and improvement of the psychosocial work environment. Scandinavian journal of work, environment & health, 438-449.

Kossek, E. E., & Lambert, S. J. (Eds.). (2004). Work and life integration: Organizational, cultural, and individual perspectives. Psychology Press.

Kun, Á., Balogh, P., & Krasz, K. (2016). Development of the work-related well-being questionnaire based on Seligman’s PERMA model. Periodica Polytechnica Social and Management Sciences, 25(1), 56. https://doi.org/10.3311/ppso.9326

Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1981). The measurement of experienced burnout. Journal of organizational behavior, 2(2), 99-113.

OpenAI. (2024). What is employee well-being and why is it such an important topic today; Why is mental health a major concern for organizational leaders today; What are the major literature streams regarding employee well-being and mental health. ChatGPT (November 2022 version) [Large Language Model].

Rathnayake, G. (2023). Bridging efficiency and empathy: the role of psychosocial safety climate in mitigating emotional stress in lean manufacturing environment.. https://doi.org/10.46254/au02.20230081

Ryff, C., & Keyes, C. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 719–727.

Scite. (2024). What is employee well-being and why is it such an important topic today; Why is mental health a major concern for organizational leaders today; What are the major literature streams regarding employee well-being and mental health; What books or articles from before 1980 should one read to learn about the foundational concepts behind employee well-being and mental health; What are the major contemporary research topics regarding employee well-being and mental health in organizations. Scite (April 2024 version) [Large Language Model].

Selander, K., Korkiakangas, E., Toivanen, M., Yli-Kaitala, K., Kangas, H., Nevanperä, N., … & Laitinen, J. (2023). Engaging leadership and psychological safety as moderators of the relationship between strain and work recovery: a cross-sectional study of hss employees. Healthcare, 11(7), 1045. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare11071045

Selem, K., Ahmad, M., Belwal, R., & Alkayid, K. (2022). Fear of COVID-19, hotel employee outcomes and workplace health and safety management practices: Evidence from Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 23(4), 594-609. https://doi.org/10.1177/14673584221119374

Seligman, M. (2018). PERMA and the building blocks of well-being. The journal of positive psychology, 13(4), 333-335.

Sonnentag, S., Unger, D., & Nägel, I. (2013). Workplace conflict and employee well‐being. International Journal of Conflict Management, 24(2), 166-183. https://doi.org/10.1108/10444061311316780

Voorde, K., Paauwe, J., & Veldhoven, M. (2011). Employee well‐being and the hrm–organizational performance relationship: a review of quantitative studies. International Journal of Management Reviews, 14(4), 391-407. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2370.2011.00322.x

Wang, W., Kang, S., & Choi, S. (2022). Servant leadership and creativity: a study of the sequential mediating roles of psychological safety and employee well-being. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.807070

Wardani, L. and Noviyani, T. (2020). Employee well-being as mediator of correlation between psychological capital and psychological climate. Journal of Educational Health and Community Psychology, 9(2). https://doi.org/10.12928/jehcp.v9i2.14357

Wieneke, K., Egginton, J., Jenkins, S., Kruse, G., López-Jiménez, F., Mungo, M., … & Limburg, P. (2019). Well-being champion impact on employee engagement, staff satisfaction, and employee well-being. Mayo Clinic Proceedings Innovations Quality & Outcomes, 3(2), 106-115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mayocpiqo.2019.04.001

Jump to: Importance | Research Areas | Foundational Works | TAOP Episodes | References

Rack CE (Employee Well-Being): Building Resilience | Mental Health and Stress | Work-Life Balance

Aisle C (Topics and Issues): Agility and Adaptability (CA) | Digital Technologies (CD) | Employee Well-Being (CE) | Inequality & Justice (CI) | 21st Century Leadership (CL) | Resource Management (CR) | Sustainability (CS) | Meaningful Work (CW)

Resources: Main Page | Research Methods (A) | Major Theories (B) | Issues and Contemporary Topics (C) | Professional Education (D)