Resources: Main Page | Research Methods (A) | Major Theories (B) | Issues and Contemporary Topics (C) | Professional Education (D)
Aisle C (Topics and Issues): Agility and Adaptability (CA) | Digital Technologies (CD) | Employee Well-Being (CE) | Inequality & Justice (CI) | 21st Century Leadership (CL) | Resource Management (CR) | Sustainability (CS) | Meaningful Work (CW)
Rack CL (21st Century Leadership): Transformational and Ethical Leadership | Distributed and Shared Leadership | Leadership in Crisis & Crisis Situations | Authentic Leadership
Jump to: Importance | Challenges | Research Areas | Resources | TAOP Episodes | References
What is Meant by “21st Century Leadership” and Why is it an Important Contemporary Topic?
Leadership in organizations today is significantly different from leadership in the past due to various changes in society, technology, workplace expectations, and global dynamics. Some of the key points of contention between leadership in the 21st century and past “traditional” leadership include the following (see Rack BL for resources related to leadership theories in general).
Perceived Shifts from Authoritarian to Collaborative Leadership. There is a popular view among some scholars and practitioners that traditional leadership styles were more hierarchical and authoritarian. Leaders often made decisions without consulting employees, and the focus was on control, command, and compliance, with clear top-down communication. In this view, contemporary leaders are expected to embrace more collaborative, inclusive, and participatory approaches (Dexter & Barton, 2021; Sujati, 2023). This supposedly includes valuing employee input, encouraging open communication, and empowering teams to contribute to decision-making. However, others are arguing that contemporary leadership environments are swinging back toward the traditional mode (or that they never really swung over in the first place). What is perhaps more true is the openly expressed desires among workers for more collaborative forms of leadership, despite signs that managers are exerting greater and greater control. Where the pendulum currently swings is therefore up for debate.
The Question of Remote Work. This is a hot topic to be sure. In the past, leadership was exercised through the use of physical offices, face-to-face interactions, and manual processes. Decision-making was more centralized, and communication often occurred through traditional channels (e.g., meetings, memos). However, the rise of technology and digital tools, along with the COVID-19 pandemic, caused leaders to have to adjust to navigate remote and hybrid work environments, leverage digital communication tools, and manage teams that are often geographically dispersed. While some workers may have found these shifts beneficial, leaders may not. For example, in-office environments encourage more face-to-face interactions among colleagues and with customers, potentially affecting the firm’s competitive advantage. Consequently, the decisions that leaders are making and why regarding remote and hybrid work is a potential interesting research subject.
Flatter Organizations and Increased Outsourcing. Traditional organizations had a vertically-integrated hierarchical structure with multiple layers of management with formally designated leaders at the top. Newer organizational designs are flatter structures with fewer hierarchical layers that supposedly fosters faster decision-making, greater flexibility, and more direct communication between leadership and employees. In addition, the use of digital technologies has brought on the gig economy and algorithmic management (also see Rack CD) that has altered the work environments and the direct scope of responsibilities among leaders. What does it mean to “lead” in such an environment?
Globalization and Cross-Cultural Leadership. When firms were tied more closely with their geographic locations, leaders were localized and cultural differences played only a small role in exercising leadership. Today, globalization has made it necessary for leaders to manage teams across diverse cultural, geographical, and time zone boundaries. Leaders today may need to be culturally competent, understanding the nuances of working with individuals from various backgrounds, and developing strategies to manage cross-cultural teams effectively. Questions about as to what particular skills, knowledge, and attributes that leaders require differently from the past to navigate these more diverse environments.
Data-Driven Decision Making. One characteristic of contemporary leadership environments is data — its availability, presence and complexity — and the expectations that data-driven decision making is best. This reflects a perceived shift away from traditional modes of leadership where intuition, experience, and positional power were more important. Instead, leaders are relying more on data to drive evidence-based strategic decisions, improve performance, understand employee satisfaction, and track organizational health. Is this a better form of decision making? Scholars are presently investigating to what extent this is true — while also questioning what constitutes a “good” decision.
Ethics and Ethical Failures. Leaders are often under pressure to meet performance targets and deliver results at any cost. This pressure can lead some to make decisions that may be considered unethical or immoral, either knowingly or through negligence. Scandals related to financial misconduct, harassment, or corporate corruption have highlighted gaps in ethical leadership. It would therefore be assumed that ethical leadership is better leadership. However, to what extent is that true and how does one know?
Leadership in Crisis Situations. The COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent challenges, the George Floyd murder and questions surrounding human dignity and respect, and the onset of increasingly devastating natural disasters and crises worldwide have drawn attention to how leaders act under crisis conditions, particularly those that are intractable or generally beyond the scope of what any one leader or organization could reasonably cope with (Selem et al., 2022; HM, 2023). Other studies focus on the strategies leaders employ to maintain team cohesion, support employee well-being, and adapt to rapidly changing circumstances (Bakht et al., 2020). Under such conditions, to what extent are leaders exercising positive or transformative leadership to overcome the exigencies of the crisis or resorting to self-protective actions to deflect its effects or promote alternative narratives to reduce criticism? What are ways to prepare leaders to act more effectively in times of crisis?
Relevant Theories or Literature Streams
The menu for this rack lists several subtopics that might be of interest and which we may produce a dedicated page in future. The Rack CL menu at the top and bottom of the page and resource links below will include active and available subpages. Also, Aisle B (Theories) may include resource pages on some of these streams.
Note: This is not intended to be comprehensive, but illustrative of the different perspectives that research can take in matters pertaining to contemporary leadership.
Digital Leadership Theories. As organizations increasingly adopt digital technologies, research on digital leadership has gained prominence. This stream examines how leaders can effectively manage digital transformation and leverage technology to enhance organizational performance. Studies explore the skills and competencies required for leaders to navigate the complexities of a digitalized world, including the ability to foster innovation and adaptability among employees (Cortellazzo et al., 2019; AlAjmi, 2022; HM, 2023). The impact of digital leadership on employee engagement and technology integration is also a critical focus (AlAjmi, 2022).
Ethical and Authentic Leadership. Contemporary research into ethical leadership investigates how leaders can promote ethical behavior and integrity within their organizations, hopefully to foster cultures of trust and accountability (Afsar & Shahjehan, 2018; Hai & Văn, 2021). Meanwhile, authentic leadership studies examines transparency and genuine relationships regarding to what extent it enhances employee engagement and organizational commitment (Sohail, 2024; Avolio et al., 2009). As organizations face increasing scrutiny regarding their social responsibilities, ethical and authentic leadership has become a critical area of research. Studies explore how leaders can cultivate trust and integrity within their teams, promoting a culture of accountability and ethical behavior (Villar, 2023). Meanwhile, unethical leadership is often characterized by behaviors that violate ethical standards, such as manipulation, deceit, and exploitation. In contrast, ethical leadership emphasizes integrity, fairness, and respect for others (Brown & Mitchell, 2010; Khan et al., 2021).
Transformational and Servant Leadership. Transformational leadership remains a central theme in leadership research, focusing on how leaders can inspire and motivate their teams to achieve higher levels of performance and innovation. Studies examine the relationship between transformational leadership and employee outcomes, such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment (Chen, 2023; Ausat et al., 2022). Other studies examine the relationship between transformational leadership and organizational change as leaders navigate the complexities of modern organizational dynamics (Usman, 2020). Servant leadership studies examine how leaders can prioritize the needs of employees and promotes their development. This literature stream is gaining traction as a model that aligns with contemporary values of collaboration and support (Amah, 2018).
Some Contemporary Areas of Research
Please note that this is not to be considered an exhaustive list. We welcome feedback to ensure currency on contemporary challenges and research efforts. This is also not intended to provide a comprehensive look at ongoing research in any of these areas but just to highlight some of the specific topic areas being pursued as of this writing.
21st Century Leadership Skills. A significant focus of current research is on identifying and developing the essential skills required for effective leadership in the modern context. This includes competencies such as communication, collaboration, critical thinking, and adaptability to technological advancements (Castro & Jimenez, 2022; Latif et al., 2022). Studies emphasize the importance of these skills in enhancing organizational performance and employee satisfaction, particularly in educational settings where teacher leadership is increasingly recognized as vital for school reform (Wenner & Campbell, 2016). One of the skills being looked at is intercultural competence. With the increasing diversity of the workforce, research on how leaders must navigate cultural differences and foster an inclusive environment is becoming important (Villar, 2023). This area of study examines how leaders can develop the skills necessary to manage multicultural teams effectively and promote collaboration across cultural boundaries.
Distributed Leadership. The concept of distributed leadership that emphasizes shared responsibility and collaboration among team members is gaining traction in contemporary leadership studies. Research indicates that distributed leadership can enhance teacher autonomy and improve educational outcomes by fostering a more inclusive decision-making process (Ponnusamy, 2024; Hangartner & Svaton, 2022). This approach contrasts with traditional hierarchical models and reflects a shift towards more collaborative leadership practices in various organizational contexts.
Transdisciplinary Approaches to Leadership. There is a growing recognition of the need for transdisciplinary approaches in leadership research, which integrate insights from various fields to address complex challenges faced by organizations (Gleason et al., 2021). This perspective emphasizes the importance of collaboration across disciplines to develop innovative solutions and enhance leadership effectiveness.
Impacts of Unethical Leadership and Other Leader Failures. The question of whether unethical leadership can be considered “better” than ethical leadership is complex and nuanced. While unethical leadership may sometimes yield short-term gains or advantages, the long-term consequences are generally detrimental to organizations and their stakeholders including employee disengagement, high turnover rates, and reputational damage (Amayreh, 2020; Mitchell et al., 2023; Bağrıyanık & Can, 2017). Studies have also shown that perceptions of unethical leadership can trigger a “trickle-down” effect, where employees justify their own unethical behavior based on their leaders’ actions (Jiang & Lin, 2020). However, in a globalized environment, what is considered unethical in one context is normal in another, leading to potential contradiction and confusion (Shafique et al., 2019). Hence, developing common ethical standards, while appearing to be very important, can be challenging.
Some Resources
This is not intended to be a “recommended” list of readings on contemporary leadership so much as a set of readings offering different views of leadership from popular authors. We welcome recommended readings that cover important topics not represented here.
Simon Sinek, Leaders Eat Last: Why Some Teams Pull Together and Others Don’t (2014). This book aligns with similar texts over the years that promote servant leadership or otherwise push leaders or managers to subordinate themselves to their employees rather than exercising positional power. The claims are that this form of leadership encourages better collaboration and organizational performance regardless of setting.
Barbara Kellerman, The End of Leadership (2012). Kellerman looks at leadership from a more critical lens, questioning many of the socially-constructed assumptions about leading and leadership in the digital age. She also criticizes the so-called “leadership industry” of consultants and professional educators who sell programs of questionable benefit to those desiring to develop leadership skills and competencies.
Louis V. Gerstner, Who Says Elephants Can’t Dance? (2002). A very informative autobiographical look at overcoming the great difficulties of turning around large corporations. Prior to Gerstner’s arrival, IBM was failing due to its entrenched business practices and old ways of thinking about the future directions of automation. IBM was on a path to dissolution, but Gerstner forced its divisions to begin working together and adopting a more customer-friendly mindset. The book chronicles the trials and tribulations along the way to IBM’s recovery. This work is similar in character to a much earlier autobiography by Alfred Sloan on his tenure in General Motors (Episode 102).
Related TAOP Episodes, Events, and Notes
97: Social Change and Organization – Invictus (2009 movie)
64: Disasters and Crisis Management – Powley and Weick
52: Management in Practice – Rosemary Stewart
26: Enacted Sensemaking in Crisis Situations — Karl Weick
14: Simply Managing, by Henry Mintzberg
Book Review of Henry Mintzberg’s “Simply Managing” (2013)
Available Resource Pages
Aisle C – Management Topics
Rack CA – Organizational Agility & Adaptability
Rack CD – Digital Transformation and Future of Work
Rack CE – Employee Well-Being & Mental Health
Rack CI – Inequality and Justice
Rack CL – Leadership in the 21st Century
Rack CR — Resource Management
Rack CS – Sustainability and Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)
Rack CW – Meaningful Work
References
Afsar, B. and Shahjehan, A. (2018). Linking ethical leadership and moral voice. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 39(6), 775-793. https://doi.org/10.1108/lodj-01-2018-0015
AlAjmi, M. (2022). The impact of digital leadership on teachers’ technology integration during the covid-19 pandemic in kuwait. International Journal of Educational Research, 112, 101928. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2022.101928
Amah, O. (2018). Employee engagement in nigeria: the role of leaders and boundary variables. Sa Journal of Industrial Psychology, 44. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v44i0.1514
Amayreh, K. (2020). The role of strategic leadership in increasing ethical practices among pharmaceutical organizations in jordan. Management Science Letters, 2371-2378. https://doi.org/10.5267/j.msl.2020.2.028
Ausat, A., Suherlan, S., Peirisal, T., & Hirawan, Z. (2022). The effect of transformational leadership on organizational commitment and work performance. Journal of Leadership in Organizations, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.22146/jlo.71846
Avolio, B., Walumbwa, F., & Weber, T. (2009). Leadership: current theories, research, and future directions. Annual Review of Psychology, 60(1), 421-449. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163621
Bağrıyanık, H. and Can, N. (2017). The relation between teachers’ perception of ethical leadership, organizational justice and organizational cynicism. Journal of Studies in Education, 7(2), 1. https://doi.org/10.5296/jse.v7i2.10973
Bakht, M., Khan, S., & Ramírez, G. (2020). 21st century leadership skills practiced by school leaders in pakistan during covid-19 pandemic. Global Social Sciences Review, V(III), 46-55. https://doi.org/10.31703/gssr.2020(v-iii).05
Castro, G. and Jimenez, E. (2022). Influence of school principal’s attributes and 21st-century leadership skills on teachers’ performance. Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 4(2), 52-63. https://doi.org/10.36079/lamintang.jhass-0402.374
Chen, L. (2023). The impact of paternalistic leadership styles on employee engagement in the pharmaceutical distribution industry: the mediating role of psychological capital. Journal of Chinese Human Resource Management, 14(2), 3-22. https://doi.org/10.47297/wspchrmwsp2040-800501.20231402
Cortellazzo, L., Bruni, E., & Zampieri, R. (2019). The role of leadership in a digitalized world: a review. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01938
Dexter, S. and Barton, E. (2021). The development and impact of team-based school technology leadership. Journal of Educational Administration, 59(3), 367-384. https://doi.org/10.1108/jea-12-2020-0260
Gerstner, L. V. (2002). Who says elephants can’t dance? Inside IBM’s historic turnaround. HarperCollins Publishers.
Gleason, M., Steele, M., Chung, J., & Guthrie, K. (2021). A call for transdisciplinary approaches to address complex challenges. New Directions for Student Leadership, 2021(172), 79-88. https://doi.org/10.1002/yd.20472
HM, M. (2023). The role of leadership in managing information technology change and its impact on organisational human resources. J.Technology; J.Society Perspective, 1(3), 112-121. https://doi.org/10.61100/tacit.v1i3.59
Hai, T. and Văn, Q. (2021). The impact of the fourth industrial revolution on ethical leadership. Journal of Human Earth and Future, 2(3), 234-247. https://doi.org/10.28991/hef-2021-02-03-05
Hangartner, J. and SVATON, C. (2022). Distributed leadership, teacher autonomy, and power relations between headteachers and teachers under low-stakes accountability conditions: an ethnographic account from Switzerland. Research in Educational Administration & Leadership, 7(2), 247-281. https://doi.org/10.30828/real.1063609
Jiang, R. and Lin, X. (2020). Trickle-down effect of benevolent leadership on unethical employee behavior: a cross-level moderated mediation model. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 41(6), 721-740. https://doi.org/10.1108/lodj-12-2019-0529
Khan, S., Khan, A., Shah, A., & Ullah, R. (2021). Impact of employees’ perceived threat of market competition on unethical marketing and selling practices: moral disengagement and ethical leadership. Business Ethics the Environment & Responsibility, 30(4), 758-771. https://doi.org/10.1111/beer.12367
Kellerman, B. (2012). The end of leadership. Harper Business.
Latif, S., Umar, N., & Yasdin, Y. (2022). Different 21st century skills among z generation in the higher education based on the level of students, and gender difference. Journal of Educational Science and Technology (Est), 8(3), 210. https://doi.org/10.26858/est.v8i2.36106
Mitchell, M., Rivera, G., & Treviño, L. (2023). Unethical leadership: a review, analysis, and research agenda. Personnel Psychology, 76(2), 547-583. https://doi.org/10.1111/peps.12574
OpenAI. (2024). How does leadership of organizations in the 21st century different from leadership in organizations in the past; How has the meaning of leadership changed over time, along with the understanding of what skills, knowledge, and attributes are needed to be a successful leader; What are the leading concerns about the quality of leadership in organizations today; What books or articles should organization scholars read to gain a basic understanding about leadership in the 21st century. ChatGPT (November 2022 version) [Large Language Model].
Ponnusamy, N. (2024). Distributive leadership as predictor of 21st century teaching practices. International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education (Ijere), 13(1), 302. https://doi.org/10.11591/ijere.v13i1.26673
Scite. (2024). How does leadership of organizations in the 21st century different from leadership in organizations in the past; How has the meaning of leadership changed over time, along with the understanding of what skills, knowledge, and attributes are needed to be a successful leader; What are the leading concerns about the quality of leadership in organizations today; What are the major contemporary literature streams regarding leadership in the 21st century; What are the major contemporary research topics regarding leadership in organizations in the 21st century; To what extent is unethical leadership better than ethical leadership. Scite (April 2024 version) [Large Language Model].
Selem, K., Ahmad, M., Belwal, R., & Alkayid, K. (2022). Fear of covid-19, hotel employee outcomes and workplace health and safety management practices: evidence from sharm el-sheikh, egypt. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 23(4), 594-609. https://doi.org/10.1177/14673584221119374
Shafique, I., Ahmad, B., & Kalyar, M. (2019). How ethical leadership influences creativity and organizational innovation. European Journal of Innovation Management, 23(1), 114-133. https://doi.org/10.1108/ejim-12-2018-0269
Sinek, S. (2014). Leaders eat last: Why some teams pull together and others don’t. Penguin.
Sohail, S. (2024). Influence of authentic leadership on employee innovation and creativity in technology companies in pakistan. American Journal of Leadership and Governance, 9(2), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.47672/ajlg.1845
Sujati, W. (2023). Transactional and transformational leadership styles and their impact on employees’ acceptance of predictive maintenance analytics: evidence from an indonesian mining company. Ieee Access, 11, 49675-49688. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2023.3277006
Usman, M. (2020). Transformational leadership and organizational change: in the context of today’s leader. International Business Education Journal, 13(1), 95-107. https://doi.org/10.37134/ibej.vol13.1.8.2020
Villar, J. (2023). The mediating role of intercultural competence on the relationship between the 21st-century leadership skills and teachers’ job satisfaction. International Journal of Research Publications, 136(1). https://doi.org/10.47119/ijrp10013611120235623
Wenner, J. and Campbell, T. (2016). The theoretical and empirical basis of teacher leadership. Review of Educational Research, 87(1), 134-171. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654316653478
Jump to: Importance | Challenges | Research Areas | Foundational Works | TAOP Episodes | References
Portions of the above text were initially drafted using OpenAI queries including “Why is it important for organization researchers to conduct research properly and ethically?”
Rack CL (21st Century Leadership): Transformational and Ethical Leadership | Distributed and Shared Leadership | Leadership in Crisis & Crisis Situations | Authentic Leadership
Aisle C (Topics and Issues): Agility and Adaptability (CA) | Digital Technologies (CD) | Employee Well-Being (CE) | Inequality & Justice (CI) | 21st Century Leadership (CL) | Resource Management (CR) | Sustainability (CS) | Meaningful Work (CW)
Resources: Main Page | Research Methods (A) | Major Theories (B) | Issues and Contemporary Topics (C) | Professional Education (D)